BBA Chapter 11 — Adverbs and Particles¶
Files¶
Reference Files¶
(No separate reference files for this chapter — full content is in this README.)
Vocabulary Decks¶
| File | Use |
|---|---|
| ch11-vocab-deck.md | Reference list with glosses |
| ch11-vocab-deck.txt | Anki import (tab-separated) |
| ch11-vocab-deck-fd.txt | Flashcards Deluxe import |
Exercises¶
| Exercise | Description |
|---|---|
| exercises/ch11-particle-drill/ | Particle and adverb identification drill from Daniel and Ezra |
Notebooks¶
| Notebook | What it shows |
|---|---|
| Aramaic Nominal Morphology | Complete word class distribution including adverbs/particles across Daniel and Ezra |
Basics of Biblical Aramaic, Van Pelt Chapter 11: Adverbs and Particles
1. Introduction¶
Chapter 11 completes the nominal system of Biblical Aramaic. You have already worked through nouns (Chapters 4–6), conjunctions and prepositions (Ch7), pronominal suffixes (Ch8), pronouns (Ch9), and adjectives and numbers (Ch10). Adverbs and particles are the last class of words that operate primarily at the level of the noun phrase and the clause — before you move into the Aramaic verbal system beginning in Chapter 12.
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or entire clauses. They are typically indeclinable — they do not inflect for gender, number, or state — which makes them straightforward to learn once the form is recognized. The challenge is not morphology but recognition: many Aramaic adverbs look like nouns or particles at first glance, and they appear frequently enough in Daniel and Ezra that failing to identify them will produce nonsense translations.
Particles is a catch-all term for a range of short, uninflected words that perform structural and logical functions: negation, emphasis, condition, contrast, and discourse marking. Some particles were introduced earlier (לָהֵן in Ch7; כָּל-קֳבֵל in Ch7; כִּדְנָה in Ch9). This chapter consolidates all of them and adds the remaining forms.
Why group adverbs and particles together here? Because in Biblical Aramaic — especially in the highly formulaic prose of Daniel — many adverbs function simultaneously as discourse markers: they signal transitions between narrative units, introduce speeches, and mark logical relationships between clauses. Understanding them is essential for reading any sustained passage in Daniel.
For students who know Hebrew: Aramaic adverbs and particles are largely distinct from their Hebrew counterparts in form, even when the semantic function is the same. A few roots are cognate (e.g., כֵּן "thus" parallels Hebrew כֵּן), but most must be learned fresh. The good news is that the set of high-frequency particles in Biblical Aramaic is small and can be mastered quickly.
2. Adverbs of Time¶
The most frequent adverbs in Biblical Aramaic are adverbs of time, and by far the most common of all is אֱדַיִן. A student who can recognize all four time adverbs below will find that large stretches of Daniel suddenly become readable.
2.1 Forms and Glosses¶
| Aramaic | Gloss | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| אֱדַיִן | then, at that time | The most common Aramaic adverb; appears over 50× in Daniel alone |
| כְּעַן | now | Temporal "now"; also used to introduce urgent or logical inference |
| עֲדַיִן | still, yet | Often in negative contexts: לָא עֲדַיִן "not yet" |
| כְּדוּ | already, now | Less frequent; found primarily in older or poetic Aramaic |
2.2 אֱדַיִן — Ubiquitous Narrative Adverb¶
אֱדַיִן ("then, at that time") deserves special attention because it is the single most common adverb in the Biblical Aramaic corpus. It functions at two levels:
- Temporal: It places the following event sequentially after the preceding one — "and then…"
- Discourse marker: It marks clause boundaries and signals the beginning of a new narrative episode or response. Think of it as the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew וַיְהִי ("and it came to pass") in its structural role.
In Daniel's narrative, virtually every scene transition begins with אֱדַיִן. The student who sees אֱדַיִן and thinks "a new action or scene is beginning" will parse the structure of Daniel's chapters far more easily.
Daniel 2:17 — אֱדַיִן דָּנִיֵּאל לְבֵיתֵהּ אֲזַל "Then Daniel went to his house."
Daniel 3:13 — אֱדַיִן נְבוּכַדְנֶצַּר בִּרְגַז וַחֲמָה אֲמַר לְהַיְתָיָה "Then Nebuchadnezzar in rage and fury commanded that Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego be brought."
2.3 כְּעַן — Now (With Urgency or Inference)¶
כְּעַן ("now") is used both temporally ("at this present moment") and inferentially ("now therefore, given this situation"). In formal or royal speech it often introduces the logical consequence of what has been established.
Daniel 2:23 — כְּעַן הוֹדַעְתַּנִי דִּי בְּעֵינָא מִנָּךְ "Now you have made known to me what we asked of you."
Ezra 4:13 — כְּעַן יְדִיעַ לֶהֱוֵא לְמַלְכָּא "Now let it be known to the king…"
2.4 עֲדַיִן — Still, Yet¶
עֲדַיִן ("still, yet") appears less frequently than אֱדַיִן but is easily confused with it by students. The key distinction: אֱדַיִן begins with אֱ (aleph + hireq); עֲדַיִן begins with עֲ (ayin + hateph-patach). In unpointed texts, context must disambiguate.
Daniel 4:28 — כֹּלָּא מְטָא עַל-נְבוּכַדְנֶצַּר מַלְכָּא ... עֲדַיִן מִלְּתָא בְּפֻם מַלְכָּא "All this came upon King Nebuchadnezzar ... while the word was still in the king's mouth."
3. Adverbs of Manner¶
Adverbs of manner describe how an action is performed. In Biblical Aramaic, several of these overlap in meaning with adjectives that can be used adverbially.
3.1 Forms and Glosses¶
| Aramaic | Gloss | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| יַתִּיר | exceedingly, greatly, beyond measure | Also used as adjective: "extraordinary, exceptional" |
| שַׂגִּיא | greatly, much | Adjective also meaning "great, many" (see Ch10); adverbial use is common |
| כֵּן | so, thus, in this way | Cognate with Hebrew כֵּן; marks manner or logical consequence |
| כִּדְנָה | thus, in this manner | Reviewed from Ch9; more emphatic or demonstrative than כֵּן |
3.2 יַתִּיר — Exceedingly, Beyond Measure¶
יַתִּיר is the primary Aramaic intensifier. It can modify adjectives ("exceedingly great") or verbs ("he was exceedingly afraid"). Its force is always one of excess or superlative degree.
Daniel 3:22 — כָּל-קֳבֵל דְּנָה מִן-קֳדָם מֵלַת מַלְכָּא מַחְצְפָה וְאַתּוּנָא אֵזֵה יַתִּיר "Because of this, because the king's command was urgent, and the furnace was heated exceedingly…"
Daniel 7:7 — דְּחִילָה וְאֵימְתָנִי וְתַקִּיפָה יַתִּירָא ("dreadful and terrifying and exceedingly strong") Here יַתִּירָא (the determined adjectival form) intensifies the description of the fourth beast.
3.3 כֵּן — So, Thus¶
כֵּן often appears in correlative structures: "just as X… so also Y." It may also close a unit of instruction or divine decree.
Daniel 2:24 — עַל-דְּנָה דָּנִיֵּאל עַל עַל-אַרְיוֹךְ ... כְּדֵין אֲמַר לֵהּ Note how כֵּן-related structures mark the logical endpoint of a sequence.
3.4 כִּדְנָה — In This Manner (Review from Ch9)¶
כִּדְנָה is the demonstrative adverb of manner — "in this way, in the following way" — and is commonly used to introduce direct speech or formal instructions.
Ezra 5:3 — כְּדְנָה אֲמַרוּ לְהֹם "Thus they said to them."
4. Adverbs of Place¶
Adverbs of place in Biblical Aramaic are few but important.
4.1 Forms and Glosses¶
| Aramaic | Gloss | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| תַּמָּה | there, in that place | The standard locative adverb for a place already mentioned |
| הָכָא | here, in this place | Less frequent; used for the speaker's present location |
4.2 תַּמָּה — There¶
תַּמָּה is a cataphoric or anaphoric locative — it points to a place already established in context. In Ezra's correspondence it frequently refers to Jerusalem or the building site of the temple.
Ezra 6:12 — אֱלָהָא דִּי שַׁכֵּן שְׁמֵהּ תַּמָּה "The God who has caused his name to dwell there."
Ezra 5:17 — הֵן עַל-מַלְכָּא טָב יִתְבַּקַּר בְּבֵית גִּנְזַיָּא דִּי-מַלְכָּא תַּמָּה בְּבָבֶל "If it seems good to the king, let a search be made in the royal archive there in Babylon."
4.3 הָכָא — Here¶
הָכָא appears in contexts where the speaker identifies their present location or demands attention to an immediate situation.
Daniel 3:24 — הֲלָא גֻּבְרִין תְּלָתָה רְמֵינָא לְגוֹא-נוּרָא ... אֱמַר הָכָא (Cf. Nebuchadnezzar's astonishment: "Did we not throw three men…")
5. Negative Particles¶
Negation in Biblical Aramaic is handled by two particles that parallel the Hebrew system almost exactly.
5.1 The Two Negatives¶
| Aramaic | Gloss | Use | Hebrew parallel |
|---|---|---|---|
| לָא | not | Standard negation of indicative statements | לֹא |
| אַל | do not | Negation of jussives and prohibitives (commands) | אַל |
5.2 לָא — Standard Negation¶
לָא is by far the more common of the two. It negates verbs in any indicative mood and appears in nominal clauses as well.
Daniel 2:10 — לָא אִיתַי-אֱנָשׁ עַל-יַבֶּשְׁתָּא דִּי מִלַּת מַלְכָּא יוּכַּל לְהַחֲוָיָה "There is no man on dry land who is able to show the king's matter."
Daniel 3:18 — וְהֵן לָא יְדִיעַ לֶהֱוֵא-לָךְ מַלְכָּא "But if not, let it be known to you, O king…"
Daniel 6:23 — כָּל-קֳבֵל דִּי הֵימִן בֵּאלָהֵהּ וְכָל-חֲבוּל לָא הִשְׁתְּכַח בֵּהּ "Because he had trusted in his God, and no harm was found on him."
5.3 אַל — Prohibitive Negation¶
אַל negates jussives and functionally prohibitive forms — it expresses "do not" or "let not." It is less frequent than לָא in the narrative corpus but appears in prayers, decrees, and divine speech.
Daniel 2:24 — לָא תְהוֹבֵד חַכִּימֵי בָבֶל ("Do not destroy the wise men of Babylon.") Note: this uses לָא rather than אַל with an imperfect in a request/petition context — Aramaic is sometimes less rigid than Hebrew in this distinction.
Ezra 4:21 — שִׂימוּ טְעֵם לְבַטָּלָא גֻּבְרַיָּא אִלֵּךְ ("Issue a decree to stop those men.") Aramaic prohibitives in epistolary prose often use imperative + object rather than אַל + jussive.
5.4 לָא עֲדַיִן — Not Yet¶
The combination לָא עֲדַיִן ("not yet") is a fixed negative idiom that deserves separate notice:
Daniel 4:28 — עֲדַיִן מִלְּתָא בְּפֻם מַלְכָּא ("the word was still in the king's mouth") Cf. the use of עֲדַיִן alone to express "still/yet."
6. Discourse Markers — How Particles Structure Daniel's Prose¶
One of the most important skills for reading Biblical Aramaic is recognizing discourse markers — particles that signal the beginning of a new unit, a transition, a contrast, or a conclusion. Biblical Aramaic narrative, especially in Daniel, is highly formulaic in its use of these markers.
6.1 Primary Discourse Markers¶
| Particle | Function | Gloss |
|---|---|---|
| אֱדַיִן | Sequential/scene boundary marker | then, at that time |
| כְּעַן | Inference or urgent present | now, now therefore |
| הָא | Presentative particle | behold! look! |
| אֲרוּ | Presentative particle (equivalent to הָא) | behold! lo! |
| לָהֵן | Contrastive/consequential | therefore, but, except |
| הֵן | Conditional or adversative | if, if…then; whether…or |
6.2 הָא and אֲרוּ — Presentative Particles¶
Both הָא and אֲרוּ are presentative particles that draw attention to something about to be shown or said. They function like Hebrew הִנֵּה ("behold, look!") and are untranslatable except by English equivalents such as "behold," "see," or "look."
הָא is more common in Ezra:
Ezra 4:12 — יְדִיעַ לֶהֱוֵא לְמַלְכָּא דִּי יְהוּדָיֵא ... הָא קִרְיְתָא בִּישְׁתָּא "Let it be known to the king that the Jews … behold, the rebellious city…"
אֲרוּ is more common in Daniel's vision accounts:
Daniel 7:2 — וַאֲרוּ אַרְבַּע רוּחֵי שְׁמַיָּא מְגִיחָן לְיַמָּא רַבָּא "And behold, four winds of heaven were stirring up the great sea."
6.3 לָהֵן — Therefore / But / Except¶
לָהֵן is one of the most semantically flexible particles in Biblical Aramaic. It introduces:
- Logical consequence: "therefore, consequently" — used in royal decrees and Daniel's interpretations
- Contrast: "but, however" — marking a shift after a negative or a concession
- Exception: "except" — narrowing a preceding general statement
Logical consequence — Daniel 2:6: וְלָהֵן פִּשְׁרָא וּמִלְּתָא תְּהַחֲוֻנַּנִי ("But if you show me the dream and its interpretation…") — here לָהֵן introduces the positive alternative.
Exception — Daniel 6:8: כָּל-דִּי-יִבְעֵה ... מִן-כָּל-אֱלָה וֶאֱנָשׁ לָהֵן מִנָּךְ מַלְכָּא ("whoever makes a petition… from any god or man except you, O king").
Consequential — Ezra 4:21: כְּעַן שִׂימוּ טְעֵם ... לָהֵן לָא תִתְבְּנֵא ("Now therefore issue a decree … that this city be not rebuilt").
6.4 הֵן … הֵן — Whether … Or / If … Then¶
הֵן functions as a conditional particle ("if") and in paired structures הֵן … הֵן produces the correlative "whether … or."
Conditional — Daniel 3:15: הֵן אִיתֵיכוֹן עֲתִידִין ("If you are ready…")
Correlative — Daniel 2:10: לָא אִיתַי-אֱנָשׁ עַל-יַבֶּשְׁתָּא ... הֵן מַלְכָּא גֵּב וְשַׁנִּיא וְרַב "There is no man … whether king, prefect, or governor…" — here הֵן introduces each member of an exhaustive series.
7. The Particle בְּדִיל and Compound Causal Particles¶
7.1 בְּדִיל — On Account of, For the Sake of¶
The particle/preposition בְּדִיל expresses purpose or cause: "for the sake of, on account of, because of." It is related to the root דיל (common in Aramaic as a genitive/possessive marker in some dialects) and typically takes a following noun or infinitive clause.
Daniel 2:30 — וְלָא בְחָכְמָה דִּי-אִיתַי בִּי מִן-כָּל-חַיַּיָּא רָזָא דְּנָה גֲלִי לִי לָהֵן בְּדִיל דִּי פִּשְׁרָא לְמַלְכָּא יְהוֹדְעוּן "Not because of any wisdom that I have more than all the living has this mystery been revealed to me, but in order that the interpretation might be made known to the king."
בְּדִיל דִּי functions as a compound conjunction meaning "in order that, so that" (purpose) or "because" (cause). The particle דִּי that follows בְּדִיל links the whole to a following clause.
7.2 כָּל-קֳבֵל (דִּי) — As a Result of, Because (Review from Ch7)¶
כָּל-קֳבֵל ("as a result of, because of, before") was introduced in Chapter 7 as a compound preposition. When followed by דִּי, it becomes a subordinating causal conjunction.
Daniel 2:12 — כָּל-קֳבֵל דְּנָה מַלְכָּא בְּנַס וּקְצַף שַׂגִּיא "Because of this the king was angry and very furious."
Daniel 3:22 — כָּל-קֳבֵל דְּנָה מִן-קֳדָם מֵלַת מַלְכָּא מַחְצְפָה "Because of this, because the king's command was urgent…"
Daniel 6:23 — כָּל-קֳבֵל דִּי הֵימִן בֵּאלָהֵהּ "Because he had trusted in his God."
8. Assertive and Emphatic Particles¶
8.1 אַף — Also, Even¶
The particle אַף ("also, even") functions as an emphatic additive. It adds an item to a series or heightens the force of a statement. It is cognate with Hebrew אַף (which is also used emphatically before a condition).
Daniel 3:2 — אֱדַיִן נְבוּכַדְנֶצַּר מַלְכָּא שְׁלַח לְמִכְנַשׁ ... וְאַף לְמִנְדְּבְרֵי מְדִינָתָא "Then King Nebuchadnezzar sent to assemble … and also the governors of the provinces."
8.2 Summary of Particles with Range of Meaning¶
Because some particles appear with very different glosses depending on context, it is worth consolidating their ranges:
| Particle | Context 1 | Context 2 | Context 3 |
|---|---|---|---|
| לָהֵן | "therefore" (consequence) | "but" (contrast) | "except" (exception) |
| הֵן | "if" (condition) | "whether…or" (correlative) | — |
| כְּעַן | "now" (temporal) | "now therefore" (inference) | — |
| אֱדַיִן | "then" (sequence) | scene-boundary marker | — |
| כֵּן | "thus, so" (manner) | "therefore" (consequence) | — |
9. Space and Location Particles — תַּמָּה vs. Related Forms¶
It is worth noting the distinction between the adverb תַּמָּה (there — a place already referenced) and forms that might be confused with it:
| Form | Gloss | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| תַּמָּה | there | Locative adverb; not related to Hebrew שָׁם in form but equivalent in function |
| הָכָא | here | Present location |
| תַּמָּן | there (variant) | Occasionally appears as a variant of תַּמָּה |
The student of Hebrew will note that the Biblical Hebrew adverb שָׁם ("there") has no direct morphological cognate in Biblical Aramaic — the Aramaic תַּמָּה is the functional equivalent.
10. Examples from Daniel and Ezra — Full Survey¶
Adverbs of Time¶
Daniel 2:17 — אֱדַיִן — Sequential narrative marker
אֱדַיִן דָּנִיֵּאל לְבֵיתֵהּ אֲזַל "Then Daniel went to his house."
אֱדַיִן opens a new narrative step — Daniel's response after his audience with Arioch. The particle is purely sequential here.
Daniel 2:23 — כְּעַן — "Now" acknowledging the answer to prayer
כְּעַן הוֹדַעְתַּנִי דִּי בְּעֵינָא מִנָּךְ "Now you have made known to me what we asked of you."
כְּעַן marks the moment of realization — the prayer has just been answered, and Daniel responds in the immediate present.
Daniel 4:28 — עֲדַיִן — "Still" expressing immediacy of judgment
עֲדַיִן מִלְּתָא בְּפֻם מַלְכָּא "While the word was still in the king's mouth…"
The emphatic temporal force of עֲדַיִן heightens the drama: Nebuchadnezzar has not even finished boasting before judgment falls.
Adverbs of Manner¶
Daniel 3:22 — יַתִּיר — "Exceedingly"
וְאַתּוּנָא אֵזֵה יַתִּיר "And the furnace was heated exceedingly."
The furnace is supernaturally overheated — יַתִּיר marks the excess. The very men who threw the three into the furnace are killed by the heat.
Ezra 5:3 — כִּדְנָה — Introducing direct speech
כְּדְנָה אֲמַרוּ לְהֹם "Thus they said to them."
כִּדְנָה here introduces the content of the officials' question — it is a discourse-introducing manner adverb.
Negative Particles¶
Daniel 2:10 — לָא — Standard negation
לָא אִיתַי-אֱנָשׁ עַל-יַבֶּשְׁתָּא דִּי מִלַּת מַלְכָּא יוּכַּל לְהַחֲוָיָה "There is no man on dry land who is able to show the king's matter."
The double negation (לָא + אִיתַי in the sense "there is not") is idiomatic for absolute denial.
Daniel 6:23 — לָא — Negation of harm
וְכָל-חֲבוּל לָא הִשְׁתְּכַח בֵּהּ "And no harm at all was found on him."
The miracle of the lions' den is stated with crisp negation: כָּל ("any") + לָא = emphatic denial.
Discourse Markers and Particles¶
Daniel 7:2 — אֲרוּ — Presentative in a vision account
וַאֲרוּ אַרְבַּע רוּחֵי שְׁמַיָּא מְגִיחָן לְיַמָּא רַבָּא "And behold, four winds of heaven were stirring up the great sea."
אֲרוּ opens each new element of the vision — the reader is drawn into Daniel's perspective as each image appears.
Daniel 3:15 — הֵן — Conditional
הֵן אִיתֵיכוֹן עֲתִידִין ... טָב "If you are ready … well and good."
The conditional הֵן followed by the apodosis. Nebuchadnezzar's ultimatum hinges on this single particle.
Daniel 3:18 — הֵן לָא — Adversative "but if not"
וְהֵן לָא יְדִיעַ לֶהֱוֵא-לָךְ מַלְכָּא "But if not, let it be known to you, O king…"
The three young men refuse to take refuge in ambiguity. הֵן לָא ("but if not") is the defiant counter to the conditional in v. 15.
Daniel 2:30 — בְּדִיל דִּי — Purpose clause
לָהֵן בְּדִיל דִּי פִּשְׁרָא לְמַלְכָּא יְהוֹדְעוּן "But in order that the interpretation might be made known to the king."
בְּדִיל דִּי marks Daniel's stated purpose: not personal glory, but the king's knowledge.
Ezra 6:12 — תַּמָּה — Locative in a decree
אֱלָהָא דִּי שַׁכֵּן שְׁמֵהּ תַּמָּה "The God who has caused his name to dwell there."
תַּמָּה refers back to Jerusalem and the temple — the location where God's name resides.
11. Summary Table of All Adverbs and Particles¶
| Form | Category | Gloss | Key Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| אֱדַיִן | Time (discourse marker) | then, at that time | Dan 2:17; 3:13 |
| כְּעַן | Time (inferential) | now, now therefore | Dan 2:23; Ezra 4:13 |
| עֲדַיִן | Time | still, yet | Dan 4:28 |
| כְּדוּ | Time | already, now | — |
| יַתִּיר | Manner | exceedingly, greatly | Dan 3:22; 7:7 |
| שַׂגִּיא | Manner (also adj) | greatly, much | Dan 2:12 |
| כֵּן | Manner / Consequential | so, thus, therefore | — |
| כִּדְנָה | Manner (demonstrative) | thus, in this manner | Ezra 5:3 |
| תַּמָּה | Place | there | Ezra 6:12; 5:17 |
| הָכָא | Place | here | Dan 3:24 (context) |
| לָא | Negation | not | Dan 2:10; 6:23 |
| אַל | Negation (prohibitive) | do not | — |
| לָהֵן | Discourse / Contrast | therefore; but; except | Dan 2:6; 6:8 |
| הֵן | Conditional / Correlative | if; whether…or | Dan 3:15, 18 |
| הָא | Presentative | behold! | Ezra 4:12 |
| אֲרוּ | Presentative | behold! lo! | Dan 7:2 |
| אַף | Assertive | also, even | Dan 3:2 |
| בְּדִיל (דִּי) | Causal / Purpose | for the sake of; in order that | Dan 2:30 |
| כָּל-קֳבֵל (דִּי) | Causal | as a result of; because | Dan 2:12; 6:23 |
12. Looking Ahead — Adverbs and Particles in the Verbal System¶
With Chapter 11 complete, you have finished the entire nominal system of Biblical Aramaic: - Phonology and orthography (Ch1–3) - Nouns and their three states (Ch4–6) - Conjunctions, prepositions, and basic particles (Ch7) - Pronominal suffixes and pronouns (Ch8–9) - Adjectives and numbers (Ch10) - Adverbs and particles (Ch11)
Beginning in Chapter 12 you will encounter Aramaic verbs, starting with an overview of the Aramaic verbal system. Everything you have learned about the nominal system remains active — Aramaic prose is dense with noun phrases, construct chains, determined nouns, and the particles from this chapter appearing on every line. Two skills in particular will carry forward immediately:
- Recognizing אֱדַיִן — it will appear in virtually every paragraph of Daniel's narrative to mark what happens next.
- Distinguishing לָא from אַל — once you are parsing verbs, the choice of negative particle will signal the mood of the verb it negates.
13. Practice¶
The exercise for this chapter asks you to identify adverbs and particles drawn from Daniel and Ezra. For each item:
- Identify the particle or adverb — give the lexical form and its basic gloss.
- Classify it — time / manner / place / negative / discourse marker / conditional / presentative / causal.
- State its function in this specific context — is a time adverb marking sequence? Is לָהֵן expressing consequence or contrast? Is הֵן introducing a condition or a member of a "whether…or" series?
- Translate the clause in which it appears.
| Resource | Description |
|---|---|
| Particle and Adverb Drill | Particle and adverb identification drill from Daniel and Ezra |